Socio-Cultural and Geographic Inequalities in EAP and EOP Learning in India: Evidence from a Cross-Regional Mixed-Methods Study

Abstract

English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) are central to educational mobility and professional participation in multilingual India, yet access to effective learning remains uneven. This study investigates socio-cultural and geographic inequalities shaping EAP and EOP learning across Northern, Eastern, Southern, and North-Eastern India. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was employed with 200 learners, equally distributed across four regions and urban-rural locations. Quantitative data examined cultural confidence, language anxiety, learning-strategy effectiveness, access conditions, and English proficiency, while qualitative responses and interviews explored learners’ experiences in depth. Results revealed significant regional, geographic, and gender-based differences. Urban learners consistently reported higher cultural confidence than rural learners, while Eastern India showed the lowest confidence and highest anxiety. Female participants generally reported greater language anxiety, although the magnitude varied regionally. Technology-assisted learning received the highest effectiveness rating, but technology, role-playing, and family support together explained only a small proportion of proficiency variance. Qualitative findings highlighted urban-rural resource disparities, rhetorical mismatch, authority-related constraints, identity tensions, and limited transitional support between academic and professional English. The study concludes that equitable EAP and EOP provision requires culturally responsive curricula, teacher development, low-anxiety interaction, inclusive assessment, and investment in rural digital and educational infrastructure.